If you've been in an airport, coffee shop, library or hotel recently, chances are you've been right in the middle of a wireless network. Many people also use wireless networking, also called WiFi or 802.11 networking, to connect their computers at home, and some cities are trying to use the technology to provide free or low-cost Internet access to residents. In the near future, wireless networking may become so widespread that you can access the Internet just about anywhere at any time, without using wires.
WiFi has a lot of advantages. Wireless networks are easy to set up and inexpensive. They're also unobtrusive -- unless you're on the lookout for a place to use your laptop, you may not even notice when you're in a hotspot. In this article, we'll look at the technology that allows information to travel over the air. We'll also review what it takes to create a wireless network in your home.
First, let's go over a few WiFi basics.
Saturday, June 30, 2012
Types of wireless networks
Types of wireless networks
Wireless PAN
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small area, that is generally within a person's reach.[3] For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN applications.[4] Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.[5]
[edit]Wireless LAN
Main article: Wireless LAN
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for Internet access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name. Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link.
[edit]Wireless mesh network
Main article: wireless mesh network
A wireless mesh network is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes. Mesh networks can "self heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power.
[edit]Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several wireless LANs.
WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.[6]
[edit]Wireless WAN
Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighboring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photo-voltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.
[edit]Mobile devices networks
Further information: mobile telecommunications
With the development of smartphones, cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for a majority of cell phones.[7]
Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first service to set up a PCS.
D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is being phased out due to advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks are replacing the older system.
[edit]Uses
Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example, Inter-continental network systems, use radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or across the world.
[edit]General
In a general sense, wireless networks offer a vast variety of uses by both business and home users.[8]
"Now, the industry accepts a handful of different wireless technologies. Each wireless technology is defined by a standard that describes unique functions at both the Physical and the Data Link layers of the OSI Model. These standards differ in their specified signaling methods, geographic ranges, and frequency usages, among other things. Such differences can make certain technologies better suited to home networks and others better suited to network larger organizations."[8]
[edit]Performance
Each standard varies in geographical range, thus making one standard more ideal than the next depending on what it is one is trying to accomplish with a wireless network.[8] The performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this technology also gives room for future expansions. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increased through configuration of network hardware and software.[9]
[edit]Space
Space is another characteristic of wireless networking. Wireless networks offer many advantages when it comes to difficult-to-wire areas trying to communicate such as across a street or river, a warehouse on the other side of the premise or buildings that are physically separated but operate as one.[9] Wireless networks allow for users to designate a certain space which the network will be able to communicate with other devices through that network. Space is also created in homes as a result of eliminating clutters of wiring.[10] This techonology allows for an alternative to installing physical network mediums such as TPs, coaxes, or fiber-optics, which can also be expensive.
[edit]Home
For homeowners, wireless technology is an effective option as compared to ethernet for sharing printers, scanners, and high speed internet connections. WLANs help save from the cost of installation of cable mediums, save time from physical installation, and also creates mobility for devices connected to the network.[10] Wireless networks are simple and require as few as one single wireless access point connected directly to the Internet via a router.[8]
[edit]Environmental concerns
See also: Wireless electronic devices and health
Starting around 2009, there have been increased concerns about the safety of wireless communications, despite little evidence of health risks so far.[11] The president of Lakehead University refused to agree to installation of a wireless network citing a California Public Utilities Commission study which said that the possible risk of tumors and other diseases due to exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) needs to be further investigated.[12]
Wireless access points are also often close to humans, but the drop off in power over distance is fast, following the inverse-square law.[13] The HPA's position is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.”[14] In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time".[15] Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.[16]
Wireless PAN
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small area, that is generally within a person's reach.[3] For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN applications.[4] Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.[5]
[edit]Wireless LAN
Main article: Wireless LAN
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for Internet access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name. Fixed wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or networks at two distant locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link.
[edit]Wireless mesh network
Main article: wireless mesh network
A wireless mesh network is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes. Mesh networks can "self heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power.
[edit]Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several wireless LANs.
WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.[6]
[edit]Wireless WAN
Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighboring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photo-voltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.
[edit]Mobile devices networks
Further information: mobile telecommunications
With the development of smartphones, cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for a majority of cell phones.[7]
Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first service to set up a PCS.
D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is being phased out due to advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks are replacing the older system.
[edit]Uses
Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless networks, allowing easy personal communications. Another example, Inter-continental network systems, use radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the police utilize wireless networks to communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or across the world.
[edit]General
In a general sense, wireless networks offer a vast variety of uses by both business and home users.[8]
"Now, the industry accepts a handful of different wireless technologies. Each wireless technology is defined by a standard that describes unique functions at both the Physical and the Data Link layers of the OSI Model. These standards differ in their specified signaling methods, geographic ranges, and frequency usages, among other things. Such differences can make certain technologies better suited to home networks and others better suited to network larger organizations."[8]
[edit]Performance
Each standard varies in geographical range, thus making one standard more ideal than the next depending on what it is one is trying to accomplish with a wireless network.[8] The performance of wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this technology also gives room for future expansions. As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increased through configuration of network hardware and software.[9]
[edit]Space
Space is another characteristic of wireless networking. Wireless networks offer many advantages when it comes to difficult-to-wire areas trying to communicate such as across a street or river, a warehouse on the other side of the premise or buildings that are physically separated but operate as one.[9] Wireless networks allow for users to designate a certain space which the network will be able to communicate with other devices through that network. Space is also created in homes as a result of eliminating clutters of wiring.[10] This techonology allows for an alternative to installing physical network mediums such as TPs, coaxes, or fiber-optics, which can also be expensive.
[edit]Home
For homeowners, wireless technology is an effective option as compared to ethernet for sharing printers, scanners, and high speed internet connections. WLANs help save from the cost of installation of cable mediums, save time from physical installation, and also creates mobility for devices connected to the network.[10] Wireless networks are simple and require as few as one single wireless access point connected directly to the Internet via a router.[8]
[edit]Environmental concerns
See also: Wireless electronic devices and health
Starting around 2009, there have been increased concerns about the safety of wireless communications, despite little evidence of health risks so far.[11] The president of Lakehead University refused to agree to installation of a wireless network citing a California Public Utilities Commission study which said that the possible risk of tumors and other diseases due to exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) needs to be further investigated.[12]
Wireless access points are also often close to humans, but the drop off in power over distance is fast, following the inverse-square law.[13] The HPA's position is that “...radio frequency (RF) exposures from WiFi are likely to be lower than those from mobile phones.” It also saw “...no reason why schools and others should not use WiFi equipment.”[14] In October 2007, the HPA launched a new “systematic” study into the effects of WiFi networks on behalf of the UK government, in order to calm fears that had appeared in the media in a recent period up to that time".[15] Dr Michael Clark, of the HPA, says published research on mobile phones and masts does not add up to an indictment of WiFi.[16]
Wireless network
Wireless network
Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by cables of any kind. It is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various equipment locations.[1] Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using a transmission system called radio waves. This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.[2]
Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by cables of any kind. It is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various equipment locations.[1] Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using a transmission system called radio waves. This implementation takes place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.[2]
Trail: Custom Networking
Trail: Custom Networking
The Java platform is highly regarded in part because of its suitability for writing programs that use and interact with the resources on the Internet and the World Wide Web. In fact, Java-compatible browsers use this ability of the Java platform to the extreme to transport and run applets over the Internet.
This trail walks you through the complexities of writing Java applications and applets that can be used on the Internet.
Overview of Networking has two sections. The first describes the networking capabilities of the Java platform that you may already be using without realizing that you are using the network. The second provides a brief overview of networking to familiarize you with terms and concepts that you should understand before reading how to use URLs, sockets, and datagrams.
Working With URLs discusses how your Java programs can use URLs to access information on the Internet. A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address of a resource on the Internet. Your Java programs can use URLs to connect to and retrieve information over a network. This lesson provides a more complete definition of a URL and shows you how to create and parse a URL, how to open a connection to a URL, and how to read from and write to that connection.
All About Sockets explains how to use sockets so that your programs can communicate with other programs on the network. A socket is one endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs running on the network. This lesson shows you how a client can connect to a standard server, the Echo server, and communicate with it via a socket. It then walks you through the details of a complete client/server example, which shows you how to implement both the client side and the server side of a client/server pair.
All About Datagrams takes you step by step through a simple client/server example that uses datagrams to communicate. It then challenges you to rewrite the example using multicast socket instead.
Programmatic Access to Network Parameters explains why you might want to access network interface parameters and how to do so. It gives examples of how to list all the IP addresses assigned to the machine as well as other useful information such as whether the interface is running.
Working With Cookies discusses how cookies are used to create a session between a client and server, and how you can take advantage of cookies in your HTTP URL connections.
Security considerations:
Note that communications over the network are subject to approval by the current security manager. The Security Manager describes what a security manager is and how it impacts your applications. For general information about the security features provided by the JDK, refer to Security Features in Java SE .
The example programs in the following lessons that cover URLs, sockets, and datagrams are standalone applications, which, by default, have no security manager. If you convert these applications to applets, they may be unable to communicate over the network, depending on the browser or viewer in which they are running. See What Applets Can and Cannot Do for information about the security restrictions placed on applets.
The Java platform is highly regarded in part because of its suitability for writing programs that use and interact with the resources on the Internet and the World Wide Web. In fact, Java-compatible browsers use this ability of the Java platform to the extreme to transport and run applets over the Internet.
This trail walks you through the complexities of writing Java applications and applets that can be used on the Internet.
Overview of Networking has two sections. The first describes the networking capabilities of the Java platform that you may already be using without realizing that you are using the network. The second provides a brief overview of networking to familiarize you with terms and concepts that you should understand before reading how to use URLs, sockets, and datagrams.
Working With URLs discusses how your Java programs can use URLs to access information on the Internet. A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the address of a resource on the Internet. Your Java programs can use URLs to connect to and retrieve information over a network. This lesson provides a more complete definition of a URL and shows you how to create and parse a URL, how to open a connection to a URL, and how to read from and write to that connection.
All About Sockets explains how to use sockets so that your programs can communicate with other programs on the network. A socket is one endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs running on the network. This lesson shows you how a client can connect to a standard server, the Echo server, and communicate with it via a socket. It then walks you through the details of a complete client/server example, which shows you how to implement both the client side and the server side of a client/server pair.
All About Datagrams takes you step by step through a simple client/server example that uses datagrams to communicate. It then challenges you to rewrite the example using multicast socket instead.
Programmatic Access to Network Parameters explains why you might want to access network interface parameters and how to do so. It gives examples of how to list all the IP addresses assigned to the machine as well as other useful information such as whether the interface is running.
Working With Cookies discusses how cookies are used to create a session between a client and server, and how you can take advantage of cookies in your HTTP URL connections.
Security considerations:
Note that communications over the network are subject to approval by the current security manager. The Security Manager describes what a security manager is and how it impacts your applications. For general information about the security features provided by the JDK, refer to Security Features in Java SE .
The example programs in the following lessons that cover URLs, sockets, and datagrams are standalone applications, which, by default, have no security manager. If you convert these applications to applets, they may be unable to communicate over the network, depending on the browser or viewer in which they are running. See What Applets Can and Cannot Do for information about the security restrictions placed on applets.
Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.
A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.
Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.
Wired vs Wireless Networking
Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.
A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.
Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.
Wired vs Wireless Networking
Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.
What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?
What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?
Question: What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?
Answer: In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
Question: What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?
Answer: In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
Communications
Communications
Communication Studies are often considered a part of both the social sciences and the humanities, drawing heavily on fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, information science, biology, political science, and economics as well as rhetoric, literary studies, and semiotics. Many communications concepts describe the transfer of information from one source to another, and can thus be conceived of in terms of a network.
[edit]Community
In J.A. Barnes' day, a "community" referred to a specific geographic location and studies of community ties had to do with who talked, associated, traded, and attended church with whom. Today, however, there are extended "online" communities developed through telecommunications devices and social network services. Such devices and services require extensive and ongoing maintenance and analysis, often using network science methods. Community development studies, today, also make extensive use of such methods.
[edit]Complex Networks
Complex networks require methods specific to modelling and interpreting social complexity and complex adaptive systems, including techniques of dynamic network analysis.
[edit]Criminal networks
In criminology and urban sociology, much attention has been paid to the social networks among criminal actors. For example, Andrew Papachristos[citation needed] has studied gang murders as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for strength.
[edit]Diffusion of innovations
Diffusion of ideas and innovations studies focus on the spread and use of ideas from one actor to another or one culture and another. This line of research seeks to explain why some become "early adopters" of ideas and innovations, and links social network structure with facilitating or impeding the spread of an innovation.
[edit]Demography
In demography, the study of social networks has led to new sampling methods for estimating and reaching populations that are hard to enumerate (for example, homeless people or intravenous drug users.) For example, respondent driven sampling is a network-based sampling technique that relies on respondents to a survey recommending further respondents.
[edit]Economic sociology
The field of sociology focuses almost entirely on networks of outcomes of social interactions. More narrowly, economic sociology considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets". Sociologists, such as Mark Granovetter, have developed core principles about the interactions of social structure, information, ability to punish or reward, and trust that frequently recur in their analyses of political, economic and other institutions. Granovetter examines how social structures and social networks can affect economic outcomes like hiring, price, productivity and innovation and describes sociologists’ contributions to analyzing the impact of social structure and networks on the economy.[47]
[edit]Health care
Analysis of social networks is increasingly incorporated into heath care analytics, not only in epidemological studies but also in models of patient communication and education, disease prevention, mental health diagnosis and treatment, and in the study of health care organizations and systems.[48]
[edit]Human ecology
Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The scientific philosophy of human ecology has a diffuse history with connections to geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, zoology, and natural ecology.[49][50]
[edit]Language/Linguistics
Studies of language and lingustics, particularly evolutionary linguistics, focus on the development of linguistic forms and transfer of changes, sounds or words, from one language system to another through networks of social interaction. Social networks are also important in language shift, as groups of people add and/or abandon languages to their repertoire.
[edit]Organizational Studies
Research studies of formal or informal organizational relationships, organizational communication, economics, economic sociology, and other resource transfers. Social networks have also been used to examine how organizations interact with each other, characterizing the many informal connections that link executives together, as well as associations and connections between individual employees at different organizations [51]. Intra-organizational networks have been found to affect organizational commitment [52], organizational identification [37], interpersonal citizenship behaviour.[53]
[edit]Social capital
Social capital is a sociological concept which refers to the value of social relations and the role of cooperation and confidence to achieve positive outcomes. The term refers to the value one can get from their social ties. For example, newly arrived immigrants can make use of their social ties to established migrants to acquire jobs they may otherwise have trouble getting (e.g., because of lack of knowledge of language). Studies show that there a positive relationship between social capital and the intensity of social network use.[54]
Communication Studies are often considered a part of both the social sciences and the humanities, drawing heavily on fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, information science, biology, political science, and economics as well as rhetoric, literary studies, and semiotics. Many communications concepts describe the transfer of information from one source to another, and can thus be conceived of in terms of a network.
[edit]Community
In J.A. Barnes' day, a "community" referred to a specific geographic location and studies of community ties had to do with who talked, associated, traded, and attended church with whom. Today, however, there are extended "online" communities developed through telecommunications devices and social network services. Such devices and services require extensive and ongoing maintenance and analysis, often using network science methods. Community development studies, today, also make extensive use of such methods.
[edit]Complex Networks
Complex networks require methods specific to modelling and interpreting social complexity and complex adaptive systems, including techniques of dynamic network analysis.
[edit]Criminal networks
In criminology and urban sociology, much attention has been paid to the social networks among criminal actors. For example, Andrew Papachristos[citation needed] has studied gang murders as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for strength.
[edit]Diffusion of innovations
Diffusion of ideas and innovations studies focus on the spread and use of ideas from one actor to another or one culture and another. This line of research seeks to explain why some become "early adopters" of ideas and innovations, and links social network structure with facilitating or impeding the spread of an innovation.
[edit]Demography
In demography, the study of social networks has led to new sampling methods for estimating and reaching populations that are hard to enumerate (for example, homeless people or intravenous drug users.) For example, respondent driven sampling is a network-based sampling technique that relies on respondents to a survey recommending further respondents.
[edit]Economic sociology
The field of sociology focuses almost entirely on networks of outcomes of social interactions. More narrowly, economic sociology considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets". Sociologists, such as Mark Granovetter, have developed core principles about the interactions of social structure, information, ability to punish or reward, and trust that frequently recur in their analyses of political, economic and other institutions. Granovetter examines how social structures and social networks can affect economic outcomes like hiring, price, productivity and innovation and describes sociologists’ contributions to analyzing the impact of social structure and networks on the economy.[47]
[edit]Health care
Analysis of social networks is increasingly incorporated into heath care analytics, not only in epidemological studies but also in models of patient communication and education, disease prevention, mental health diagnosis and treatment, and in the study of health care organizations and systems.[48]
[edit]Human ecology
Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The scientific philosophy of human ecology has a diffuse history with connections to geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, zoology, and natural ecology.[49][50]
[edit]Language/Linguistics
Studies of language and lingustics, particularly evolutionary linguistics, focus on the development of linguistic forms and transfer of changes, sounds or words, from one language system to another through networks of social interaction. Social networks are also important in language shift, as groups of people add and/or abandon languages to their repertoire.
[edit]Organizational Studies
Research studies of formal or informal organizational relationships, organizational communication, economics, economic sociology, and other resource transfers. Social networks have also been used to examine how organizations interact with each other, characterizing the many informal connections that link executives together, as well as associations and connections between individual employees at different organizations [51]. Intra-organizational networks have been found to affect organizational commitment [52], organizational identification [37], interpersonal citizenship behaviour.[53]
[edit]Social capital
Social capital is a sociological concept which refers to the value of social relations and the role of cooperation and confidence to achieve positive outcomes. The term refers to the value one can get from their social ties. For example, newly arrived immigrants can make use of their social ties to established migrants to acquire jobs they may otherwise have trouble getting (e.g., because of lack of knowledge of language). Studies show that there a positive relationship between social capital and the intensity of social network use.[54]
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